More Than Drums: Questions of Cultural Awareness
By Jonathan Blum

African Music: Misunderstandings

Once I had a friend listen to a Fela Anikulapo Kuti album. His response to the Nigerian's wild horn playing, fully accompanied by singing, chanting, and hand drum beats put over a brass jazz band was simply, “I'm not really intoWorld Music.” I then switched the stereo to some folk music from Madagascar. After only a few seconds of the jolly, upbeat strumming on a multitude of string instruments complimented by energetic shakers, clapping, and harmonious voices, he answered my inquisitive eyes with, “I told you, I don't really like World Music.” These two examples illustrate an important point. While we obsessively categorize our own music into Country, Rap, Rock, Jazz, etc. and vigorously support their separation with social and theoretical definitions such as differences in the instruments, rhythms, or connection to a certain group, we are able to casually lump the music of the entire continent of Africa into a singular object known as World Music. The drums of Sub-Saharan Africa are understood with a similar misconception. We see them all with a shallow eye, blind of their differences, their roles in society, the variety of ways they can be played, and the meaning behind each rhythm. It is these elements found in each drum and each player that make them the “instrument that best expresses the inner feelings of [Sub-Saharan] Africa.”

The Drum is Born: The Materials and Production

Even from the very beginning of the drum-making process, the cultural depth and significance of drums is apparent. Although the most common material for drum making is wood, this may depend largely on what is available in a given region. For many societies on the Savannah belt, where there is a lack of trees, the drums are made “[b]y cutting the top of [a] gourd, cleaning out the seeds and adding a skin membrane.” Clay drums shaped like a pot may also serve as a replacement in these regions and can be found in other parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, though they often carry different meanings because they are usually made, and played, by women. As for wooden drums, materials can be quite a complex subject. For creating each of the seven drums in the Senegalese Sabar tradition three types of wood are used: the body is from the Baobab tree (a common species in West Africa), the pegs from a very different tree called the Neem in Wolof, and the sticks used to play the drum are from the Sump tree. Outside the Sabar tradition, the djembe, a common drum to all of West Africa, is made from fast growing Tweneboa trees planted specifically for drum-making. The middle section of the Tweneboa is preferred, in most cases, as the red dense wood found at the base of the tree is difficult to carve and produces drums that are too heavy while the white wood towards the top is too immature, thereby prone to cracking. Globalization has also had its effect throughout Sub-Saharan Africa with a rise in the production of “[t]in, aluminum and iron barrel drums.” The materials for the resonating membrane stretched over the top of the drum come from quite a range of animal skin sources. The most commonly used animals are domestic; goat, sheep, and cow-skin drums can be found in almost every region. Zebra are fairly typical in Eastern Africa with monkey, snakes, or lizards being more specific to groups in Central Africa. The membrane may then be attached by cords woven around the drum body, cords latched onto pegs pounded into the drum, an adhesive, or a combination of all three.

Just as important as what the drum is made of is who makes the drum, how, and why not someone else? Throughout Africa there are logical and social customs integrated into drum-making culture. Within the Senegalese Sabar drumming tradition not everyone is allowed to make the drum. There is a social group called the Laube, specializing in wood working, that is responsible for carving the drums. It is, then, the drummer, himself, who actually puts the drum together and repairs any damages the drum accumulates over the years. On the other side of the continent, in Mozambique, the production for many types of traditional drums, including the one and a half meter high mussite from Zambezia, “requires an expert and may take up from one and a half to two months.” During this time period, the drum-maker is prohibited from sexual relations and will likely participate in a ceremony in which a mixture of special roots and small pieces of wood is applied both to his forehead and the materials being used in the drum. Due to the amount of time and specialized knowledge required for production, these drum makers are more than just a social group, they are a part of the elite. Why all the rituals, social etiquette, and 'fuss' over drum-making? They're just instruments, right?

The Thriving Drum: Traditional Practices

In Africa, traditional drums are more than instruments exclusively for entertainment purposes; they carry importance and demand respect. In the following examples, take notice of the religious significance embedded into the customs surrounding drum use, and the pragmatic roles of drums as communicators. These important functions in societies are the source of all the 'fuss' involved in the drum-making process. They want to know who made the drum and the process involved so they can be sure it is suitable to be used as a sacred, or “talking,” drum.

The Yoruba people of Nigeria are famous for their double-skinned talking drums, which can broadcast “actual spoken messages” throughout a village. They possess a tonal language in which the meaning of a word changes with the pitch in which it is spoken. The drums are shaped like an hourglass, with cords running across it, in such a way, that they can be manipulated with the forearm to change the tone, and “reproduce all the nuances of the spoken language—including slurred notes and onomatopoeias.” They believe that trees in close contact with humans, especially those found close to the village, will be able speak best when made into drums. Several other types of drumming exist, most of them for use religious ceremonies. A family may worship ancestors by playing drums, along with dancing, praying, and offering gifts for their appeasement. In another setting the Ipese, a drum orchestra, is used in the worship of the deity Ifa, with a drum representing each of his four wives. The talking drum is used here to call out traditional phrases during worship. “To the traditional Yoruba, drumming means more than an organized group of sounds...[S]ound emanating from drumming is evocative... it has magical power... bringing man, God and nature together.”

Among the Baganda, a large ethnic group in Uganda, there are examples of drums used for administrative purposes. A certain drum, called the Ggwanga-Mujje, was used in times of war. Its literal meaning is “Nation Come… [and] was sounded to announce war or danger and to rally people to the scene.” “Every able person, mostly men, after recognizing the sound of the [drum], would immediately gather his weapons and run to the place of assembly for action.” Another talking drum, the Saagala-Agalamidde, belongs to the village chiefs. “If a tree falls across the road, or a bridge has been washed away, the village chief... rushes to the scene and starts sounding the drum. All able men take their hoes, and other working equipment, and attend to the communal work.” The sounds of each drum are taught to children at a very young age so they are able to recognize when an emergency is occurring. In former times, the drums, some of which can be heard as far as ten miles away, were used strictly in the royal palace to make announcements and would be “played very rarely and seldom seen in public.” The Baganda drums have “been used as a symbol signifying power and authority” in the structure of Ugandan society, with remnants still alive today.

The widely dispersed Djembe of West Africa was originally used for generations by 'griots,' who acted as ritual storytellers, musicians, and royal advisers. Once again, these drums can also be a power symbol. Simple Djembes, with little or no decoration, are considered common everyday objects, while those with delicate carvings and ornate details can serve in “bringing status to the owner, connoting power and the honoring of ancestors.” Traditionally, “each [d]jembe rhythm and dance has a purpose, a time, and a place. Some rhythms honor groups of people..., [others] are associated with specific occasions, such as Soli (for circumcisions and excisions) and Kassa (accompanying the cultivation of fields).”

Drums and rhythms can also be found in use for various odd jobs and simply as a part of the daily enjoyment of life. Work drums find use as alarm clocks, and the “Akan (a cluster of related groups in Ghana) drummers compare themselves to a cock, as they too proclaim the break of dawn.” In places where wild game is still a major source of food, hunters “play drums to frighten and direct the game straight to [their] traps.” When large numbers of people come together on a market day, or any other regular event, “[d]rummers sometimes play... to the enjoyment of all.” For example, “in the extremely hot and dry desert climate of Southern Ethiopia, the Gala people arrived to the Jijiga market led by drummers who awakened the drowsy merchants.” Those involved in a number of professions including farmers, dock workers, and women working in rice paddy fields may be accompanied by drummers as they work. Others may create the beats themselves, by shoveling, moving, and pounding mud into bricks in rhythms.

The customs above include and occupy unique and significant roles, often diffiuclt to understand by merely looking at drums out of context. The customs listed are by no means the limit of the drums' messages, nor do the drums listed represent all the types of drums found, in even a single culture. They do offer clues, however, as to why many Africans, even when hearing a drum on a cd, react to the sounds and rhythms with such strong emotions and enthusiasm. They hold meanings not familiar to our culture. The ethnic group from which the rhythm originated may even be identifiable. African drums are definitely used for entertainment traditionally, but not always in the way one might imagine entertainment in Western culture. They are also taking on new roles in society as many cities begin to grow and people's ideas begin to change.

The Urban Rhythm: Celebration

In cities, the face of the African drum is rapidly changing. With the new dynamic of urbanization tribal cultures are mixing, foreign media is infiltrating into everyday life, and a new, so-called, hybrid drum culture is emerging. The original deities are being replaced by western gods. The drum's everyday role in communication is slowly coming to an end, since in most places there are now radios to transmit messages formerly sent by drums. Within the urban environments, the function of the drum is shifting more to an instrument of joy and a representation of culture. The drummer's role “remains [as] the mediator with the sacred, the initiate and regulator of the cultural ethnic order.” However, at the same time, his image has “tumbled to the bottom rung of the social ladder... [to] that of a parasite who is identified with other modern artists[.]” The traditional ceremonies are being replaced by celebrations of all types, and a gap between the village and modern ballet drum performances is growing.

These changes do not represent a decline in use of drums. New, and old, roles for drums are coming out and coalescing into city life. There may very well be a celebration with a village style drummer playing for the harvest in an urban area. There just is not going to be any crop to show for it. Also drummers are more and more “[integrating] into folkloric groups, ...traditional urban orchestras that perpetuate ethnic culture.” In the case of African nations after independence eager to present their drumming internationally“[t]he dance circle of the village was broken and spread out in a line so that a seated, non-participating audience could see.” This in turn sparked a new genre of music. Many groups have gone overseas to perform in concert halls. Independent drummers now play for tourists seated at cafes or staying in hotels in Africa, or abroad. Recorded music has added another dimension to the drumming. People all over the world now can get a taste of drum music, and famous drummers, such as Doudou Ndiaye Rose of Senegal, can inspire thousands of others to get into playing drums. The actual drums themselves are now being more widely produced than ever, as the international market for them grows.

These new mediums are also leading to divisions in drum culture. In village style drumming celebrations there is dancing, that fact is fairly non-negotiable. "All of those present dance sometime during the event, usually approaching the drummers singly... [and] [m]ost significantly for the drummers, there is an ebb and flow to the event which corresponds with frenetic dancing at blistering tempos and slower respites where the guests sing[.]” The village drummers base their rhythms on how the people are dancing and vice-versa whereas in ballet drumming performances the dancers and rhythms are choreographed or the drums are presented alone. This has its advantages and disadvantages. “Such a conception of performance demands extensive group practice. What is lost in spontaneity is made up for in compositional creativity. Whole ensembles play passages in unison weaving in and out of polyrhythmic sections.” Solo drumming has also led to more experimentation by individuals and the creation of fabulous music.

Whether it is a village or ballet style performance to honor a traditional deity, the ancestors, a national holiday, or someone's birthday what is still evident is that drums are important. Drums are not often played without a gathering or celebration. The drum deserves a reason to be played. In western culture African drums are spreading past their former borders, but is the context being changed so drastically that the meaning behind them is lost in the process?

Solutions: Cultural Exposure

“[Drums] epitomize the real definition of African music—a music that speaks in rhythms that dance.”

African drums have already reached mainstream Western culture through World Music record labels and ballet style drumming performance, but they must be introduced through new channels and guided in order for cultural understanding to make any progress. Books, too, are limiting in that they don't provide any hands-on experience. Our culture needs direct exposure to the traditional village drumming by integrating it into our lives through a meaningful cultural medium.

The creation of drumming groups taught by master drummers and performed in an appropriate setting would be an effective method. Alliances with Universities and Colleges, which already have African study programs, would help bring the publicity and expertise necessary to spark other publicly funded drumming groups. Besides performing in theaters and concert halls where ballet drumming groups are usually displayed, they should be introduced into more interactive and dynamic settings. In a university or high school setting, they could perform at halftime during important basketball and football games, graduations, conferences and meetings, school dances, celebrations or an outdoor area created specifically for the group to perform in traditional “drum circles.” Audience participation in dancing should be strongly encouraged. After all “[d]ance to drumming is like a woman to a man – it gives it meaning.” Other methods of expanding cultural exposure in our public school systems would be an increase in funding to African studies departments, classes, and projects. A university student might seek a grant for videotaping drums being played in Africa or for bringing a group to the United States to perform.

The suggestions above could assist to create support for and interest in understanding African music and drumming, as well as establish a fan base for future drummers. That may in turn inspire the listeners to explore and research the music on their own and investigate what the rhythms are saying. At a minimum these should lead to respect for the complexity of African drumming and its place in the inner feelings of African tradition.

Works Cited

All About Djembe African Drums. 2004. 18 July, 2005. Bebey, Francis. African Music: A People's Art. New York: Lawrence Hill & Co., Publishers, Inc., 1975.

Charry, Eric. A Guide to the Jembe. 14 October, 2000. Wesleyen University. 18 July 2005.

Dagan, Esther A. Drums: The Heartbeat of Africa. Montreal: Galarie Amrad African Art Publications, 1993.

Fall, Alassane. Live interview. 14 July, 2005.

Hymbaugh, Karen. Sabar. April 26, 1997. July 17, 2005. www.mindspring.com/~sabar/sabar/sabar.htm